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- By Rose Teteki Abbey, K. C. Abraham, David Tuesday Adamo, LeRoy H. Aden, Efrain Agosto, Victor Aguilan, Gillian T. W. Ahlgren, Charanjit Kaur AjitSingh, Dorothy B E A Akoto, Giuseppe Alberigo, Daniel E. Albrecht, Ruth Albrecht, Daniel O. Aleshire, Urs Altermatt, Anand Amaladass, Michael Amaladoss, James N. Amanze, Lesley G. Anderson, Thomas C. Anderson, Victor Anderson, Hope S. Antone, María Pilar Aquino, Paula Arai, Victorio Araya Guillén, S. Wesley Ariarajah, Ellen T. Armour, Brett Gregory Armstrong, Atsuhiro Asano, Naim Stifan Ateek, Mahmoud Ayoub, John Alembillah Azumah, Mercedes L. García Bachmann, Irena Backus, J. Wayne Baker, Mieke Bal, Lewis V. Baldwin, William Barbieri, António Barbosa da Silva, David Basinger, Bolaji Olukemi Bateye, Oswald Bayer, Daniel H. Bays, Rosalie Beck, Nancy Elizabeth Bedford, Guy-Thomas Bedouelle, Chorbishop Seely Beggiani, Wolfgang Behringer, Christopher M. Bellitto, Byard Bennett, Harold V. Bennett, Teresa Berger, Miguel A. Bernad, Henley Bernard, Alan E. Bernstein, Jon L. Berquist, Johannes Beutler, Ana María Bidegain, Matthew P. Binkewicz, Jennifer Bird, Joseph Blenkinsopp, Dmytro Bondarenko, Paulo Bonfatti, Riet en Pim Bons-Storm, Jessica A. Boon, Marcus J. Borg, Mark Bosco, Peter C. Bouteneff, François Bovon, William D. Bowman, Paul S. Boyer, David Brakke, Richard E. Brantley, Marcus Braybrooke, Ian Breward, Ênio José da Costa Brito, Jewel Spears Brooker, Johannes Brosseder, Nicholas Canfield Read Brown, Robert F. Brown, Pamela K. Brubaker, Walter Brueggemann, Bishop Colin O. Buchanan, Stanley M. Burgess, Amy Nelson Burnett, J. Patout Burns, David B. Burrell, David Buttrick, James P. Byrd, Lavinia Byrne, Gerado Caetano, Marcos Caldas, Alkiviadis Calivas, William J. Callahan, Salvatore Calomino, Euan K. Cameron, William S. Campbell, Marcelo Ayres Camurça, Daniel F. Caner, Paul E. Capetz, Carlos F. Cardoza-Orlandi, Patrick W. Carey, Barbara Carvill, Hal Cauthron, Subhadra Mitra Channa, Mark D. Chapman, James H. Charlesworth, Kenneth R. Chase, Chen Zemin, Luciano Chianeque, Philip Chia Phin Yin, Francisca H. Chimhanda, Daniel Chiquete, John T. Chirban, Soobin Choi, Robert Choquette, Mita Choudhury, Gerald Christianson, John Chryssavgis, Sejong Chun, Esther Chung-Kim, Charles M. A. Clark, Elizabeth A. Clark, Sathianathan Clarke, Fred Cloud, John B. Cobb, W. Owen Cole, John A Coleman, John J. Collins, Sylvia Collins-Mayo, Paul K. Conkin, Beth A. Conklin, Sean Connolly, Demetrios J. Constantelos, Michael A. Conway, Paula M. Cooey, Austin Cooper, Michael L. Cooper-White, Pamela Cooper-White, L. William Countryman, Sérgio Coutinho, Pamela Couture, Shannon Craigo-Snell, James L. Crenshaw, David Crowner, Humberto Horacio Cucchetti, Lawrence S. Cunningham, Elizabeth Mason Currier, Emmanuel Cutrone, Mary L. Daniel, David D. Daniels, Robert Darden, Rolf Darge, Isaiah Dau, Jeffry C. Davis, Jane Dawson, Valentin Dedji, John W. de Gruchy, Paul DeHart, Wendy J. Deichmann Edwards, Miguel A. De La Torre, George E. Demacopoulos, Thomas de Mayo, Leah DeVun, Beatriz de Vasconcellos Dias, Dennis C. Dickerson, John M. Dillon, Luis Miguel Donatello, Igor Dorfmann-Lazarev, Susanna Drake, Jonathan A. Draper, N. Dreher Martin, Otto Dreydoppel, Angelyn Dries, A. J. Droge, Francis X. D'Sa, Marilyn Dunn, Nicole Wilkinson Duran, Rifaat Ebied, Mark J. Edwards, William H. Edwards, Leonard H. Ehrlich, Nancy L. Eiesland, Martin Elbel, J. Harold Ellens, Stephen Ellingson, Marvin M. Ellison, Robert Ellsberg, Jean Bethke Elshtain, Eldon Jay Epp, Peter C. Erb, Tassilo Erhardt, Maria Erling, Noel Leo Erskine, Gillian R. Evans, Virginia Fabella, Michael A. Fahey, Edward Farley, Margaret A. Farley, Wendy Farley, Robert Fastiggi, Seena Fazel, Duncan S. Ferguson, Helwar Figueroa, Paul Corby Finney, Kyriaki Karidoyanes FitzGerald, Thomas E. FitzGerald, John R. Fitzmier, Marie Therese Flanagan, Sabina Flanagan, Claude Flipo, Ronald B. Flowers, Carole Fontaine, David Ford, Mary Ford, Stephanie A. Ford, Jim Forest, William Franke, Robert M. Franklin, Ruth Franzén, Edward H. Friedman, Samuel Frouisou, Lorelei F. Fuchs, Jojo M. Fung, Inger Furseth, Richard R. Gaillardetz, Brandon Gallaher, China Galland, Mark Galli, Ismael García, Tharscisse Gatwa, Jean-Marie Gaudeul, Luis María Gavilanes del Castillo, Pavel L. Gavrilyuk, Volney P. Gay, Metropolitan Athanasios Geevargis, Kondothra M. George, Mary Gerhart, Simon Gikandi, Maurice Gilbert, Michael J. Gillgannon, Verónica Giménez Beliveau, Terryl Givens, Beth Glazier-McDonald, Philip Gleason, Menghun Goh, Brian Golding, Bishop Hilario M. Gomez, Michelle A. Gonzalez, Donald K. Gorrell, Roy Gottfried, Tamara Grdzelidze, Joel B. Green, Niels Henrik Gregersen, Cristina Grenholm, Herbert Griffiths, Eric W. Gritsch, Erich S. Gruen, Christoffer H. Grundmann, Paul H. Gundani, Jon P. Gunnemann, Petre Guran, Vidar L. Haanes, Jeremiah M. Hackett, Getatchew Haile, Douglas John Hall, Nicholas Hammond, Daphne Hampson, Jehu J. Hanciles, Barry Hankins, Jennifer Haraguchi, Stanley S. Harakas, Anthony John Harding, Conrad L. Harkins, J. William Harmless, Marjory Harper, Amir Harrak, Joel F. Harrington, Mark W. Harris, Susan Ashbrook Harvey, Van A. Harvey, R. Chris Hassel, Jione Havea, Daniel Hawk, Diana L. Hayes, Leslie Hayes, Priscilla Hayner, S. Mark Heim, Simo Heininen, Richard P. Heitzenrater, Eila Helander, David Hempton, Scott H. Hendrix, Jan-Olav Henriksen, Gina Hens-Piazza, Carter Heyward, Nicholas J. Higham, David Hilliard, Norman A. Hjelm, Peter C. Hodgson, Arthur Holder, M. Jan Holton, Dwight N. Hopkins, Ronnie Po-chia Hsia, Po-Ho Huang, James Hudnut-Beumler, Jennifer S. Hughes, Leonard M. Hummel, Mary E. Hunt, Laennec Hurbon, Mark Hutchinson, Susan E. Hylen, Mary Beth Ingham, H. Larry Ingle, Dale T. Irvin, Jon Isaak, Paul John Isaak, Ada María Isasi-Díaz, Hans Raun Iversen, Margaret C. Jacob, Arthur James, Maria Jansdotter-Samuelsson, David Jasper, Werner G. Jeanrond, Renée Jeffery, David Lyle Jeffrey, Theodore W. Jennings, David H. Jensen, Robin Margaret Jensen, David Jobling, Dale A. Johnson, Elizabeth A. Johnson, Maxwell E. Johnson, Sarah Johnson, Mark D. Johnston, F. Stanley Jones, James William Jones, John R. Jones, Alissa Jones Nelson, Inge Jonsson, Jan Joosten, Elizabeth Judd, Mulambya Peggy Kabonde, Robert Kaggwa, Sylvester Kahakwa, Isaac Kalimi, Ogbu U. Kalu, Eunice Kamaara, Wayne C. Kannaday, Musimbi Kanyoro, Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, Frank Kaufmann, Léon Nguapitshi Kayongo, Richard Kearney, Alice A. Keefe, Ralph Keen, Catherine Keller, Anthony J. Kelly, Karen Kennelly, Kathi Lynn Kern, Fergus Kerr, Edward Kessler, George Kilcourse, Heup Young Kim, Kim Sung-Hae, Kim Yong-Bock, Kim Yung Suk, Richard King, Thomas M. King, Robert M. Kingdon, Ross Kinsler, Hans G. Kippenberg, Cheryl A. Kirk-Duggan, Clifton Kirkpatrick, Leonid Kishkovsky, Nadieszda Kizenko, Jeffrey Klaiber, Hans-Josef Klauck, Sidney Knight, Samuel Kobia, Robert Kolb, Karla Ann Koll, Heikki Kotila, Donald Kraybill, Philip D. W. Krey, Yves Krumenacker, Jeffrey Kah-Jin Kuan, Simanga R. Kumalo, Peter Kuzmic, Simon Shui-Man Kwan, Kwok Pui-lan, André LaCocque, Stephen E. Lahey, John Tsz Pang Lai, Emiel Lamberts, Armando Lampe, Craig Lampe, Beverly J. Lanzetta, Eve LaPlante, Lizette Larson-Miller, Ariel Bybee Laughton, Leonard Lawlor, Bentley Layton, Robin A. Leaver, Karen Lebacqz, Archie Chi Chung Lee, Marilyn J. Legge, Hervé LeGrand, D. L. LeMahieu, Raymond Lemieux, Bill J. Leonard, Ellen M. Leonard, Outi Leppä, Jean Lesaulnier, Nantawan Boonprasat Lewis, Henrietta Leyser, Alexei Lidov, Bernard Lightman, Paul Chang-Ha Lim, Carter Lindberg, Mark R. Lindsay, James R. Linville, James C. Livingston, Ann Loades, David Loades, Jean-Claude Loba-Mkole, Lo Lung Kwong, Wati Longchar, Eleazar López, David W. Lotz, Andrew Louth, Robin W. Lovin, William Luis, Frank D. Macchia, Diarmaid N. J. MacCulloch, Kirk R. MacGregor, Marjory A. MacLean, Donald MacLeod, Tomas S. Maddela, Inge Mager, Laurenti Magesa, David G. Maillu, Fortunato Mallimaci, Philip Mamalakis, Kä Mana, Ukachukwu Chris Manus, Herbert Robinson Marbury, Reuel Norman Marigza, Jacqueline Mariña, Antti Marjanen, Luiz C. L. Marques, Madipoane Masenya (ngwan'a Mphahlele), Caleb J. D. Maskell, Steve Mason, Thomas Massaro, Fernando Matamoros Ponce, András Máté-Tóth, Odair Pedroso Mateus, Dinis Matsolo, Fumitaka Matsuoka, John D'Arcy May, Yelena Mazour-Matusevich, Theodore Mbazumutima, John S. McClure, Christian McConnell, Lee Martin McDonald, Gary B. McGee, Thomas McGowan, Alister E. McGrath, Richard J. McGregor, John A. McGuckin, Maud Burnett McInerney, Elsie Anne McKee, Mary B. McKinley, James F. McMillan, Ernan McMullin, Kathleen E. McVey, M. Douglas Meeks, Monica Jyotsna Melanchthon, Ilie Melniciuc-Puica, Everett Mendoza, Raymond A. Mentzer, William W. Menzies, Ina Merdjanova, Franziska Metzger, Constant J. Mews, Marvin Meyer, Carol Meyers, Vasile Mihoc, Gunner Bjerg Mikkelsen, Maria Inêz de Castro Millen, Clyde Lee Miller, Bonnie J. Miller-McLemore, Alexander Mirkovic, Paul Misner, Nozomu Miyahira, R. W. L. Moberly, Gerald Moede, Aloo Osotsi Mojola, Sunanda Mongia, Rebeca Montemayor, James Moore, Roger E. Moore, Craig E. Morrison O.Carm, Jeffry H. Morrison, Keith Morrison, Wilson J. Moses, Tefetso Henry Mothibe, Mokgethi Motlhabi, Fulata Moyo, Henry Mugabe, Jesse Ndwiga Kanyua Mugambi, Peggy Mulambya-Kabonde, Robert Bruce Mullin, Pamela Mullins Reaves, Saskia Murk Jansen, Heleen L. Murre-Van den Berg, Augustine Musopole, Isaac M. T. Mwase, Philomena Mwaura, Cecilia Nahnfeldt, Anne Nasimiyu Wasike, Carmiña Navia Velasco, Thulani Ndlazi, Alexander Negrov, James B. Nelson, David G. Newcombe, Carol Newsom, Helen J. Nicholson, George W. E. Nickelsburg, Tatyana Nikolskaya, Damayanthi M. A. Niles, Bertil Nilsson, Nyambura Njoroge, Fidelis Nkomazana, Mary Beth Norton, Christian Nottmeier, Sonene Nyawo, Anthère Nzabatsinda, Edward T. Oakes, Gerald O'Collins, Daniel O'Connell, David W. Odell-Scott, Mercy Amba Oduyoye, Kathleen O'Grady, Oyeronke Olajubu, Thomas O'Loughlin, Dennis T. Olson, J. Steven O'Malley, Cephas N. Omenyo, Muriel Orevillo-Montenegro, César Augusto Ornellas Ramos, Agbonkhianmeghe E. Orobator, Kenan B. Osborne, Carolyn Osiek, Javier Otaola Montagne, Douglas F. Ottati, Anna May Say Pa, Irina Paert, Jerry G. Pankhurst, Aristotle Papanikolaou, Samuele F. Pardini, Stefano Parenti, Peter Paris, Sung Bae Park, Cristián G. Parker, Raquel Pastor, Joseph Pathrapankal, Daniel Patte, W. Brown Patterson, Clive Pearson, Keith F. Pecklers, Nancy Cardoso Pereira, David Horace Perkins, Pheme Perkins, Edward N. Peters, Rebecca Todd Peters, Bishop Yeznik Petrossian, Raymond Pfister, Peter C. Phan, Isabel Apawo Phiri, William S. F. Pickering, Derrick G. Pitard, William Elvis Plata, Zlatko Plese, John Plummer, James Newton Poling, Ronald Popivchak, Andrew Porter, Ute Possekel, James M. Powell, Enos Das Pradhan, Devadasan Premnath, Jaime Adrían Prieto Valladares, Anne Primavesi, Randall Prior, María Alicia Puente Lutteroth, Eduardo Guzmão Quadros, Albert Rabil, Laurent William Ramambason, Apolonio M. Ranche, Vololona Randriamanantena Andriamitandrina, Lawrence R. Rast, Paul L. Redditt, Adele Reinhartz, Rolf Rendtorff, Pål Repstad, James N. Rhodes, John K. Riches, Joerg Rieger, Sharon H. Ringe, Sandra Rios, Tyler Roberts, David M. Robinson, James M. Robinson, Joanne Maguire Robinson, Richard A. H. Robinson, Roy R. Robson, Jack B. Rogers, Maria Roginska, Sidney Rooy, Rev. Garnett Roper, Maria José Fontelas Rosado-Nunes, Andrew C. Ross, Stefan Rossbach, François Rossier, John D. Roth, John K. Roth, Phillip Rothwell, Richard E. Rubenstein, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Markku Ruotsila, John E. Rybolt, Risto Saarinen, John Saillant, Juan Sanchez, Wagner Lopes Sanchez, Hugo N. Santos, Gerhard Sauter, Gloria L. Schaab, Sandra M. Schneiders, Quentin J. Schultze, Fernando F. Segovia, Turid Karlsen Seim, Carsten Selch Jensen, Alan P. F. Sell, Frank C. Senn, Kent Davis Sensenig, Damían Setton, Bal Krishna Sharma, Carolyn J. Sharp, Thomas Sheehan, N. Gerald Shenk, Christian Sheppard, Charles Sherlock, Tabona Shoko, Walter B. Shurden, Marguerite Shuster, B. Mark Sietsema, Batara Sihombing, Neil Silberman, Clodomiro Siller, Samuel Silva-Gotay, Heikki Silvet, John K. Simmons, Hagith Sivan, James C. Skedros, Abraham Smith, Ashley A. Smith, Ted A. Smith, Daud Soesilo, Pia Søltoft, Choan-Seng (C. S.) Song, Kathryn Spink, Bryan Spinks, Eric O. Springsted, Nicolas Standaert, Brian Stanley, Glen H. Stassen, Karel Steenbrink, Stephen J. Stein, Andrea Sterk, Gregory E. Sterling, Columba Stewart, Jacques Stewart, Robert B. Stewart, Cynthia Stokes Brown, Ken Stone, Anne Stott, Elizabeth Stuart, Monya Stubbs, Marjorie Hewitt Suchocki, David Kwang-sun Suh, Scott W. Sunquist, Keith Suter, Douglas Sweeney, Charles H. Talbert, Shawqi N. Talia, Elsa Tamez, Joseph B. Tamney, Jonathan Y. Tan, Yak-Hwee Tan, Kathryn Tanner, Feiya Tao, Elizabeth S. Tapia, Aquiline Tarimo, Claire Taylor, Mark Lewis Taylor, Bishop Abba Samuel Wolde Tekestebirhan, Eugene TeSelle, M. Thomas Thangaraj, David R. Thomas, Andrew Thornley, Scott Thumma, Marcelo Timotheo da Costa, George E. “Tink” Tinker, Ola Tjørhom, Karen Jo Torjesen, Iain R. Torrance, Fernando Torres-Londoño, Archbishop Demetrios [Trakatellis], Marit Trelstad, Christine Trevett, Phyllis Trible, Johannes Tromp, Paul Turner, Robert G. Tuttle, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Peter Tyler, Anders Tyrberg, Justin Ukpong, Javier Ulloa, Camillus Umoh, Kristi Upson-Saia, Martina Urban, Monica Uribe, Elochukwu Eugene Uzukwu, Richard Vaggione, Gabriel Vahanian, Paul Valliere, T. J. Van Bavel, Steven Vanderputten, Peter Van der Veer, Huub Van de Sandt, Louis Van Tongeren, Luke A. Veronis, Noel Villalba, Ramón Vinke, Tim Vivian, David Voas, Elena Volkova, Katharina von Kellenbach, Elina Vuola, Timothy Wadkins, Elaine M. Wainwright, Randi Jones Walker, Dewey D. Wallace, Jerry Walls, Michael J. Walsh, Philip Walters, Janet Walton, Jonathan L. Walton, Wang Xiaochao, Patricia A. Ward, David Harrington Watt, Herold D. Weiss, Laurence L. Welborn, Sharon D. Welch, Timothy Wengert, Traci C. West, Merold Westphal, David Wetherell, Barbara Wheeler, Carolinne White, Jean-Paul Wiest, Frans Wijsen, Terry L. Wilder, Felix Wilfred, Rebecca Wilkin, Daniel H. Williams, D. Newell Williams, Michael A. Williams, Vincent L. Wimbush, Gabriele Winkler, Anders Winroth, Lauri Emílio Wirth, James A. Wiseman, Ebba Witt-Brattström, Teofil Wojciechowski, John Wolffe, Kenman L. Wong, Wong Wai Ching, Linda Woodhead, Wendy M. Wright, Rose Wu, Keith E. Yandell, Gale A. Yee, Viktor Yelensky, Yeo Khiok-Khng, Gustav K. K. Yeung, Angela Yiu, Amos Yong, Yong Ting Jin, You Bin, Youhanna Nessim Youssef, Eliana Yunes, Robert Michael Zaller, Valarie H. Ziegler, Barbara Brown Zikmund, Joyce Ann Zimmerman, Aurora Zlotnik, Zhuo Xinping
- Edited by Daniel Patte, Vanderbilt University, Tennessee
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- The Cambridge Dictionary of Christianity
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Contents
- Alexander Augustine Parker
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- The Mind and Art of Calderón
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- 27 January 1989, pp vii-viii
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20 - The issue of religious freedom
- Alexander Augustine Parker
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- The Mind and Art of Calderón
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- 27 January 1989, pp 283-287
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All new history alters the significance of all previous history, and for Calderón the present could not but alter the past. Ribadeneyra's interpretation of history (his first Part was published in the year of the Armada) was dictated by the spirit in which he approached it: ‘Who will not abhor so diabolical a sect? Who will not wonder at the patience of the Lord, who endures them? Who will not fight against these monsters? Who will not believe that victory is certain?’No intelligent Spaniard could approach the history of England in that spirit some thirty-four years later. When the original paper, which the last chapter largely reproduces, was published, it was generally accepted that Calderón's play must have been written after 1639 and before 1652, probably therefore after the outbreak of the English Civil War, and perhaps even after the execution of Charles I (an event which aroused consternation and horror in Spain). My essay gave this as the probable reason for Calderón's compassionate treatment of the earlier English king.
After the publication of that original paper it was discovered that a private performance of La cisma de Ingalaterra had been given to Philip IV in the palace, for which payment was made on 31 March 1627. We do not know whether this was the first performance, nor whether the play then performed was the play as we now have it. Assuming that this is the case, the likelihood is that the play was begun, if not completed, in 1626.
12 - The vicissitudes of secrecy (1): La dama duende, El galán fantasma
- Alexander Augustine Parker
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- The Mind and Art of Calderón
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- 27 January 1989, pp 143-152
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Two of Calderón's best-known comedies come early in his career. They are Casa con dos puertas mala es de guardar (A House with Two Doors is Hard to Guard) and La dama duende (The Ghostly Lady), both of 1629. In chapter 2, it was stated that there are three principal types of dramatic symbols used by Calderón. The first is a place or object central to the development of the action and which therefore has a special significance. It was suggested that the two doors in each of the two houses in Casa con dos puertas … were symbols representing, in the first place, the two poles of convention round which social decorum had to oscillate, secrecy and the dissimulation that has to cover it up: one has to emerge from a door through which one has not entered; and, in the second place, the twoedged character of courtship and love, balanced precariously on a knife-edge – what is sought secretly and kept in secrecy can easily founder in jealousy. Just as the stage action is constructed on this dualism, so is the theme constructed on a constant duality, swaying between secrecy and deception, truth and falsehood, loyalty and betrayal, wooing and duelling, comedy and tragedy. The duality of the doors evokes duplicity in the explanations of the characters' conduct; among the characters themselves, these produce equivocal situations.
6 - The father–son conflict
- Alexander Augustine Parker
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- The Mind and Art of Calderón
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- 27 January 1989, pp 69-85
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In a dramatist who by any ordinary standards wrote so much (though not by the phenomenal standards of Lope de Vega or even of Tirso de Molina) it is not easy to speak of sources of inspiration. The ultimate source of inspiration must, however, be his own experience of life, transmuted into dramatic poetry. In the case of Calderón we can detect a group of plays that can be plausibly connected with his early life on the basis of documentary evidence, and these contain plots for which he draws on his direct experience. These form the first division of his output. The second division is formed by plays that most reflect his involvement in his society, but still more reflect or are directed towards his audience's involvement in their common society. A further heading would cover religious themes. Although Calderón has some striking religious comedias, his attempt to find dramatic form for the problems of faith and religious experience lies mainly in the corpus of his autos sacramentales; though these derive from the medieval drama, they are so far advanced in conception and execution that they really form a whole dramatic genre in themselves, which is excluded from this book. Calderón's religious comedias, as befits the secular stage, bring religion into closer contact with the life of society. They deal more with the impact of religious faith on public life, such as crusading wars, and various problems covered by religion and politics, which include the question of conformity or non-conformity to religious beliefs imposed by political means.
Epilogue
- Alexander Augustine Parker
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- The Mind and Art of Calderón
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- 27 January 1989, pp 360-366
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In 1976 Manuel Durán and Roberto González Echeverría published in two volumes an anthology of Calderonian criticism entitled Calderón y la crítica: historia y antología (Madrid: Gredos 1976). A reviewer of this anthology stated that: ‘Calderón the dramatist disappears from view under the weight of Calderón the thinker and moralist’. It may be that similar criticism could be made of this book; for after all Calderón did have a philosophical cast of mind and a strong ethical sense, whereas these pages have not laid much emphasis on Calderón as a technician of the stage. But what exactly does this distinction mean? It cannot mean that the purpose of existence, the workings of human psychology, and the problems of Good and Evil are not relevant to poetic drama. It must somehow be a question of the right balance between what the reader's mind makes of human problems and the way a dramatist manipulates the human figures of a plot within the framework of a fixed stage. There are different ways of reading plays, which will differ according to the reader's temperaments and dominant interests. The reader whose interest lies primarily in plays as spectacles will, as he reads, visualise the stage action in his imagination, seeing how it would work out on the stage if he were the producer.
5 - The Coriolanus theme: Las armas de la hermosura
- Alexander Augustine Parker
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- The Mind and Art of Calderón
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Coriolanus, a Roman military leader, had been given this name after capturing the Volscian city of Corioli, when he restored his liberty to the leader of the enemy. Despite many later services to Rome, he was refused the consulship by the people, and this caused a resentment which rankled, with the result that the antagonism of the people to him grew more violent. Brought to trial by the Senate, he was banished, and defected to the Volscians, Rome's former enemies. He was warmly received and advised by them to make war against Rome, and he marched against his native city at the head of a Volscian army. Various embassies were sent to him by his frightened countrymen, but he was deaf to all pleas to save Rome until finally his mother Veturia and wife Volumnia came out to plead with him. He greeted them tenderly, but he remained for long relentless in his desire for vengeance. At last the entreaties of the two women caused him to withdraw his army. The women had saved Rome, and a temple to ‘Female Fortune’ was erected in thanksgiving. The Volscians, however, turned in anger against Coriolanus for his betrayal, and he was murdered in 488 bc before his trial could be held. The Roman matrons put on mourning for his loss.
Calderón's version of this theme is Las armas de la hermosura (Beauty's Weapons) (1652).
2 - From metaphor to symbol
- Alexander Augustine Parker
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- The Mind and Art of Calderón
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- 27 January 1989, pp 25-41
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In the centenary year of 1881 the young Marcelino Menéndez Pelayo brought his course of lectures on Calderón to a close by enumerating the defects of his art. They were: ‘Verbosity, the empty pomp of his diction, attention paid more to intrigues and to the movement on the stage than to the painstaking and careful dissection and analysis of a character.’ Since then, the third centenary of Calderón's death has been celebrated, and a very different picture emerged from most of the commemorative addresses. It has become more usual, in fact, to look for his artistic merits precisely in his ‘language’, in the ‘intrigues’ of his plots, and in the ‘movement on stage’. One aspect of his style and technique which is fundamental for the study of his art forms the subject of this chapter.
A characteristic example of my preoccupation is the relatively early play, La cisma de Ingalaterra, whose metaphors and symbols will be dealt with in general terms here, while the fuller study of its theme and its dramatic significance will be taken up again in a later chapter. The play was performed in the salón de teatro, the small private theatre in the Madrid palace before the Coliseo was constructed. At the beginning of this play, King Henry VIII receives two letters, one from the Pope and one from Luther; he mistakenly throws the Pope's letter at his feet and puts Luther's on his head. Later, Anne Boleyn enters; so arrogant is she that she dislikes kneeling even before the king, but as she approaches him, she stumbles and falls.
15 - From comedy to tragedy: No hay cosa como callar
- Alexander Augustine Parker
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- 27 January 1989, pp 181-195
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El postrer duelo de España is a comedy in its structure, but not in its tone; it deals with duelling and with the intrigues that give rise to duelling. It is akin to a cloak-and-sword play in plot and in the atmosphere of social life, but there is no element of comedy in the way the intrigue develops and in the tone of the dialogue. To celebrate the end of public duelling in Spain was a supremely serious aim, one fully in keeping with the solemnity of a court spectacle. The passage from humour to seriousness within the plot conventions of the comedy of intrigue had been made much earlier by Calderón. Comedy with a light humorous tone and a witty development of intrigue is characteristic particularly of his early period. The comedies so far considered all date from the end of the 1620s into the early 1630s. In this latter decade liveliness of stage movement and entertaining intrigues give way to plays that are comedies in structure and convention, but that have a serious subject-matter that uncovers human weakness and the social customs that give them free rein; but this does not become a satire in a didactic or moralistic sense. These are plays that pull back the curtain on human imperfection to enable the audience to see themselves in this light. In practically every comedy of intrigue a point is reached in the climax (near the beginning of Act III) when the action can easily turn to tragedy.
4 - ‘Poetic truth’ in the shaping of plots
- Alexander Augustine Parker
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- The Mind and Art of Calderón
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- 27 January 1989, pp 51-56
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Summary
The preceding chapters have demonstrated how ‘reality’ is moulded to fit the poetic and dramatic ends that Calderón had in mind. ‘Reality’ is moulded through metaphors into symbols, and a ‘real-life’ plot is given a structure that has a unity imposed by a logical plan. The action of El alcalde de Zalamea, however, does not distort or pervert ‘reality’; on the contrary, it serves to highlight it. Frequently, however, Calderón takes vast liberties with plots that come straight from historical sources, or from well-known literary sources, such as mythological fables. This freedom aroused the scorn of neo-classicists and of all later critics who considered, naturally enough, that historical plays should be true in essentials to the events they were re-imagining. Marcelino Menéndez Pelayo, in his centenary study of Calderón in 1881, could not impute ignorance of history to the dramatist, and had to fall back on the charge that his failure to be ‘historical’ was due to negligence or total disregard of the nature of historical drama. This charge was, on the face of it, unlikely to be true, and in fact when he made it he was himself guilty of disregard of the fact that the literary theorists of the Golden Age expressly repudiated fidelity to historical sources as a strict requirement in drama; either because he thought that Calderón went much further than they would have been allowed, or because he could not condone any departure from truth even on the part of reputable Renaissance theorists.
The Mind and Art of Calderón
- Essays on the Comedias
- Alexander Augustine Parker
- Edited by Deborah Kong
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- 05 February 2012
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- 27 January 1989
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Don Pedro Calderón de la Barca (1600–81) was, with Lope de Vega, the greatest exponent of Spanish Golden Age drama. Professor Parker's essays are the fruits of a highly distinguished career spanning forty-five years. They provide a wide-ranging survey of Calderón's secular, three-act plays (comedias) through detailed analyses of individual works. The themes found in the plays are studied in relation to the background of ideas in seventeenth-century Spain and to the development of Calderón's own view of the intellectual life and the social, ethical and moral problems of this age. From the tensions of Calderón's early family life and his intellectual struggle with the associated problems, the book passes to the wider tensions in the social and political life of his time, and concludes with a demonstration of how Calderón raises all these human problems onto a wide 'philosophical' level through his use of myths and symbols.
11 - The functions of comedy
- Alexander Augustine Parker
- Edited by Deborah Kong
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- The Mind and Art of Calderón
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- 27 January 1989, pp 133-142
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Summary
The preceding chapters have traced the development of a recurring theme in Calderon from his earliest plays to its gradual transformation in plot structure and technique, connected with the movement away from ‘real-life’ themes and actions towards the symbolism and abstractions of mythology, which are to dominate the last period of his dramatic output. It was suggested that this recurring theme must have been based on a traumatic experience in his boyhood, which he explored by means of dramatic art in a search for understanding and solution of the problems that this aroused for human living. While exploring these real-life problems at the start of his career, he also embarked on other themes, passing from the problems raised by family relationships to the problems raised by living in society. The life of society dominated the stage comedies in all countries that had a well-developed theatrical form of entertainment. The comedies of seventeenth-century Europe exemplified the ‘comedy of humours’ and the ‘comedy of manners’. These had their counterparts in Spain, though the ‘comedy of manners’ did not develop the elegant sophistication of a Molière. Comedies of manners in their earliest Spanish forms grew into ‘comedies of intrigue’ which tended to outnumber the ‘comedies of manners’.
The comedy of humours was exemplified in Spain by what later was to be called the comedia de figurón, the nearest equivalent in Spain to a ‘humour’ play, namely a satirical piece in which some eccentric or extravagant character is satirised.
22 - The drama as commentary on public affairs
- Alexander Augustine Parker
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- The Mind and Art of Calderón
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Summary
Las armas de la hermosuraand the Catalan Rebellion (1640–52)
At the commencement of his dramatic career, as has been seen, Calderón raised politico-religious issues that had been prominent in recent events. These provided a ‘historical context’ for dramatic plots, and no well-informed member of the audience (which would have included king and councillors) should have failed to see the analogies. But apart from the general implication in the plays that have already been considered, namely, that conciliation and peace are likely to prove more successful than intransigence and war, none of these plays can be taken as ‘speaking without telling’ in Bances Candamo's sense. There are, however, two plays that may clearly come into this category.
The first is Las armas de la hermosura, and its source play, El privilegio de las mujeres. The former was analysed in chapter 5 as an example of the dramatic requirement to transform ‘historical truth’ into ‘poetic truth’. The analysis and the interpretations of the play previously given still stand, but the theme of pardon instead of vengeance and the restoration of privileges has a special application to the aftermath of the Revolt of Catalonia, which lasted from 1640 to 1652.
The causes of the Revolt lay in the ‘regionalist’ structure of the Spanish State, so different from the centralisation that had been achieved in France. Regionalism versus centralisation was to remain a perennial Spanish problem, as the new democratic state that succeeded the dictatorship of General Franco eventually conceded.
18 - The king as centre of political life
- Alexander Augustine Parker
- Edited by Deborah Kong
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- The Mind and Art of Calderón
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- 27 January 1989, pp 241-249
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It is a special feature of Spanish Golden Age plays from Lope de Vega's time that kings are frequently present, being either referred to or presented on the stage, especially after dramatic writing and performances became centralised in Madrid. The capital city was always referred to as la corte. This usage stemmed from the Middle Ages when the ‘capital’ moved around with the king and his government, being always where his court happened to be at any particular time. The characters in plays are always ‘arriving at the Court’ or ‘leaving the Court’, or discussing the latest customs and fashions of ‘the Court’.
This traditional use of the term represented a reality of which the inhabitants were very conscious, for the life of Madrid revolved round the actual palace in which the king resided. The presence of a king in a play, whether seen or just felt, was a strong sense of authority (of law and order, as we say nowadays) with all the connotations of justice and the moral law. Philip II had prided himself on being accessible to any of his subjects. With the expansion of bureaucratic government this had ceased to be the case in Calderón's time, but in the drama kings are at hand to hear complaints, to pass judgement, and to right wrongs.
This ‘presence’ of the monarch meant that there was always a standard to be appealed to.
Frontmatter
- Alexander Augustine Parker
- Edited by Deborah Kong
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- The Mind and Art of Calderón
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- 27 January 1989, pp i-vi
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23 - The court drama
- Alexander Augustine Parker
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- The Mind and Art of Calderón
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- 27 January 1989, pp 329-339
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That Calderón is a predominantly religious dramatist cannot be substantiated statistically, if we limit ourselves to his comedias, or plays for the public theatres and the palace. There are 109 of these plays, only twelve of which have religious subjects; in the remainder religion does not enter at all except in so far as its practice was a natural part of the social world portrayed on the stage; but there are some forty plays that do not portray this social world, and among these there are a group of seventeen in which it is impossible to detect that they were written by a Christian. These are his mythological plays. Calderón could not have written these had he not been an heir to Renaissance Humanism. The classical myths coloured every poet's way of thinking and determined his metaphors. It also invaded the stage, especially in that least realistic of dramatic forms: opera. This had begun in Italy with mythological themes. The first opera, produced in Italy in 1597, had as libretto the myth of Daphne. Orpheus and Cephalus were the subjects of the next two operas, also of course in Italy. Calderón plays an important part in the early stages of the development of opera in Spain: many of his mythological plays are music dramas in whole or in part. Mythology and music, each in its own way, elevated dramatic art well above the sphere of prosaic reality. This was not theatre for the ordinary people, but for an aristocratic élite.
24 - Mythology and humanism
- Alexander Augustine Parker
- Edited by Deborah Kong
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- The Mind and Art of Calderón
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- 27 January 1989, pp 340-347
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All men have a guide within their own traditions to the problem of human destiny. One such was mythology in the ancient pagan world. Calderón considered classical mythology to be a variant or deviant form of the original revelation given to Mankind. Ten of his autos sacramentales use classical myths as allegories of Christian dogmas, including the Incarnation and the sacrificial death of Christ. In the earliest Christian centuries Orpheus had appeared as a symbol of Christ, because he broke down the gates of Hades in order to restore his beloved, Eurydice, to the world. Very soon, however, the early Church fathers scornfully attacked the Greek and Roman gods, ridiculing especially their licentiousness and marital infidelities. The stern judgement of Lactantius was that ‘if one were to call out to Jupiter, Neptune, Vulcan, Mercury, Apollo, and Saturn, the father of them all, they would all reply from the depths of Hell.’ Calderón, however, justifies his use of mythology in the autos by pointing to the numerous parallels between the fables and the Bible, because Renaissance mythographers had more than an inkling of comparative anthropology.
Our modern culture finds nothing extravagant in such a parallel. In fact, the modern anthropologist would accept the parallel but would invert its interpretation. The Christian doctrines of the Virgin Birth, God made Man, His sacrificial death as the means of freeing Mankind from enslavement to sin and guilt, might themselves be considered myths, alternative forms of the Graeco-Roman fables.
10 - Fate and human responsibility (2): a dramatic presentation – El mayor monstruo los celos
- Alexander Augustine Parker
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- The Mind and Art of Calderón
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- 27 January 1989, pp 114-130
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Tirso de Molina preceded Calderón in dramatising the story of Herod and Mariamne. Despite the great differences between the two plays, Blanca de los Ríos affirmed that Calderón owed much to La vida y muerte de Herodes. Since the plays have absolutely nothing in common, all that can be affirmed is that Tirso's play may have been the stimulus that made Calderón's mind turn to the Herod story. That he read Tirso's play is certain, for it was published in the latter's Quinta Parte de comedias (1636) for which Calderón wrote a respectful aprobación (censor's official approval). The composition of El mayor monstruo los celos could have followed this, for it was published in his Segunda Parte in 1637, though this does not leave much time for the play to have been performed, and for the text to have become corrupted before it reached the printer. Calderon later revised it and the revision was licensed for performance in 1667, and again in 1672; at the end it is stated that the play is
Como la escribió su autor;
no como la inprimió el urto,
de quien es su estudio echar
a perder otros estudios
(as the author wrote it; and not as it was printed by piracy, whose purpose is to spoil another's production)
There is nothing in the texts of the two plays to indicate that they are in any way dependent.
13 - The vicissitudes of secrecy (2): El astrólogo fingido
- Alexander Augustine Parker
- Edited by Deborah Kong
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- The Mind and Art of Calderón
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- 27 January 1989, pp 153-168
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Whether the characters in Spanish plays are strictly bound by the social conventions, or whether they observe them only loosely, marks the difference between tragedies, serious dramas and comedies. El astrólogo fingido is much more of a comedy than most of Calderón's cloak-and-sword plays, and in reading it we are at once struck by the disparity between the absurd protestations that the women make about their honour as long as they have their young men firmly on the lead, and the readiness with which they go behind the conventions if the young men threaten to abandon their attentions. The resulting intrigues are a satire on the conventions as well as on feminine protestations about honour, but as befits comedy the satire in this particular case is light-hearted. In the case of serious plays and tragedies there is nothing to laugh at: the conventions are presented in their starkness and the modern reader is repelled; whether the dramatist was also repelled and sought to arouse repulsion in his audience is what critical analysis should seek to determine. There is no such uncertainty or ambiguity in comedies. El astrólogo fingido can serve as an example of how far Calderón's humour could go in presenting the social and the stage conventions. It can also serve to demonstrate that Calderón's comedies are works of art, and not just examples of cleverly constructed intrigues.
Index
- Alexander Augustine Parker
- Edited by Deborah Kong
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- The Mind and Art of Calderón
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- 27 January 1989, pp 410-417
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